BUY POLITICAL AND CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF INDIA THIRUVALLUVAR TAMIL| இந்தியாவின் அரசியல் மற்றும் அரசியலமைப்பு வரலாறு திருவள்ளுவர்| 2025 | LATEST EDITION | BEST GUIDE IN TAMIL|
Anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago.[1] The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago. Sedentariness began in South Asia around 7000 BCE; by 4500 BCE, settled life had spread,[2] and gradually evolved into the Indus Valley Civilisation, one of three early cradles of civilisation in the Old World,[3] which flourished between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE in present-day Pakistan and north-western India.
Early in the second millennium BCE, persistent drought caused the population of the Indus Valley to scatter from large urban centres to villages. Around 1800 – 1500 BCE the Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the north western region of india, modern day Punjab from Central Asia in several waves of migration. The Vedic Period of the Vedic people in northern India (1500–500 BCE) was marked by the composition of their extensive collections of hymns (Vedas). The social structure was loosely stratified via the varna system, incorporated into the highly evolved present-day Jāti system.
The pastoral and nomadic Indo-Aryans spread from the Punjab into the Gangetic plain. Around 600 BCE a second urbanization occurred resulting in a new interregional culture; then, smaller janapadas (realms) were consolidated into mahajanapadas (great states). This period saw the rise of new ascetic movements and religious concepts,[4] including the rise of Jainism and Buddhism. The latter was synthesized with the preexisting religious cultures of the subcontinent, giving rise to Hinduism.
Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nanda Empire and established the first great empire in ancient India, the Maurya Empire. India’s Mauryan king Ashoka is widely recognised for the violent Kalinga War and his historical acceptance of Buddhism and his attempts to spread nonviolence and peace across his empire. This period marks the rapid dissemination of Śramaṇic religions.
The Maurya Empire would collapse in 185 BCE, on the assassination of the then-emperor Brihadratha by his general Pushyamitra Shunga. The Shunga Empire in the north and north-east of the subcontinent would fracture into various smaller polities.
Whereas, in the North West, the Greco-Bactrians would found the Indo-Greek Kingdoms, which were replaced by successive invasions from Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthians and Kushan Empires. The Gupta Empire from Greater Magadha, in the 4th to 6th centuries CE, would reunify these regions as mentioned in the Iron pillar of Delhi. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence is known as the Classical or Golden Age of India. Aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion spread to much of Asia, which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in the region, forming Greater India.[5][4]
The Gupta Empire would gradually wane due to multiple invasions from the Huna people and loss of core territories. Huna invasions would be checked by regional rulers including Yashodharman supported by the Later Guptas, then again by Harsha. The large scale invasion of Huna peoples and their assimilation led to the syncretic Pratihara dynasty. The most significant event between the 7th and 11th centuries was the Tripartite struggle centred on Kannauj resulting in Pratihara victory.
Southern India saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century. The Chola dynasty conquered southern India in the 11th century. In the early medieval period, Indian mathematics, including Hindu numerals, influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world, including the creation of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system.
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